Presence of nanos in food: what is the state of play?

Presence of nanos in food: what is the state of play?

Nanos are added to more than 900 food products: this was revealed by an ANSES survey in 2020Cf.¹Nanomaterials in food products, Anses opinion, May 2020. The figure rises to 4,300 products when we consider manufactured nanomaterials whose presence is not necessarily proven but in any case suspected.
Although these figures were calculated before the2020 ban on E171 in food, they are still staggering. Yet, when you want to dig deeper, it is very difficult to identify precisely which food products contain these nanos and what they are used for. Let’s zoom in together to try to better understand…

Nanos in our food products? The fog is clearing

Des informations peu précises concernant les nanos dans les denrées alimentaires

Ĭļ ēşŧ đåñş ļēş fåįŧş ŧȑyş đįffįçįļē đ’åvöįȑ ȕñē įđžē pȑžçįşē đēş åppļįçåŧįöñş đēş ñåñöŧēçħñöļöģįēş đåñş ļ’åģȑö-åļįmēñŧåįȑē : pēȕ đ’įñföȑmåŧįöñş şöñŧ åççēşşįbļēş şȕȑ ļēş ŧypēş đē ñåñömåŧžȑįåȕx q ļ’žŧȕđē öȕ đžĵq ȕŧįļįşžş, åįñşį qȕē şȕȑ ļēş qȕåñŧįŧžş ēŧ ļēş ȕşåģēş çöȑȑēşpöñđåñŧş, ŧöȕŧ çömmē şȕȑ ļēş ēñŧȑēpȑįşēş çöñçēȑñžēş.éàçùééàçùééàçùééàçùééàç

According to the ANSES in 2020,“the exhaustive identification of food products containing nanomaterials is very complex”. The²ANSESopinion and report of³2020 are mainly based on the analysis of⁴theOqali and GNPD databases⁵, which do not give a complete view of the market. Among the obstacles: the lack of sources allowing the identification of these products, the limits of the European regulation and the problems of definition of the term “nanomaterials”.

Due to the lack of reliable data, the“Yuka” or“Which product?” (from Que Choisir) apps cannot offer to search for the presence or absence of nanos in products.

Cautious companies… at least in terms of communication

Łēş ēñŧȑēpȑįşēş åģȑöåļįmēñŧåįȑēş föñŧ pöȕȑ ļē möįñş pȑēȕvē đē “pȑȕđēñçē” – pöȕȑ ñē påş đįȑē öpåçįŧž – çöñçēȑñåñŧ ļēȕȑş åçŧįvįŧžş öȕ ȕşåģēş đē ñåñömåŧžȑįåȕx ēŧ/öȕ ñåñöŧēçħñöļöģįēş.éàçùééàçùééàç

Without mentioning thelabelling obligation [nano] which is not respected (see below), many organizations have tried to obtain information from food companies on the presence of nanomaterials in their products, without success…

The r-nano register: a list of nano substances… without the possibility to identify the products that contain them

Since 2013, companies must declare each year, in the r-nano register, the nanomaterials they import, produce or distribute in France. But the industry federations have influenced the design of the registry in such a way that even ANSES, which manages the registry, cannot know in which products the nanomaterials registered in the database are ultimately found.
However, the registry is being improved to allow for better traceability. _$ $$$ $$…_

Inventories often outdated, always fragmented

Inventories of everyday consumer products (including food products) containing nano exist, but their reliability is limited because they are based on declarations by manufacturers or assumptions about the composition of products (often without possible verification, due to lack of financial, human and/or technical resources). Furthermore, with the exception of the Danish NanoDatabase, they are not regularly updated.

And little or no mention on the labels

In 2014,“nano” labeling became mandatory on food products. But since then, the mentions [nano] are still extremely rare, as several associations and the DGCCRF have already pointed out.

Pöȕȑ påļļįēȑ ļē måñqȕē đ’įñföȑmåŧįöñş, đēş ŧēşŧş şöñŧ đžşöȑmåįş pöşşįbļēşéàçùé

Identifying food products that contain nanoparticles of concern has long been an (almost) impossible task – if one relies on publicly and freely available data. Fortunately, important metrological advances now make it possible to identify these nanoparticles and finally make them “visible”.

At the beginning of 2016, RTS (Radio Télévision Suisse) had tried in vain to find a laboratory in Switzerland, Holland and Germany to test several products including a bottle of ketchup, but no laboratory had been able to analyze them at the time¹²Cf. the program “A bon entendeur”: Nanoparticles in our plates, the big secret, May 3, 2016. In France, the National Laboratory of Metrology and Testing(LNE) has the equipment and expertise to do soSee¹³in particular How to characterize and measure nanoparticles in food products, LNE, Webinar, February 2, 2017 andUT2A in Pau is also working on the detection of nanoparticles in food. These two laboratories work in particular for the DGCCRF. Other work is underway on the subject in France and abroadCf.¹⁴Stakeholder workshop on small particles and nanoparticles in food, EFSA, 31 March – 1 April 2022.

Laboratory tests are thus the only solution available to associations and control authorities… but also to companies wishing to verify the claims (not always reliable) of their suppliers. These tests have the disadvantage of being very expensive, but unfortunately it is only when there is objective evidence of the presence of nanoparticles in products that some brands agree to pay attention to the nano issue.

Ďēş ŧēşŧş ȑžåļįşžş åȕx fȑåįş đē ļå şöçįžŧžéàç

Ďēpȕįş 2016, đēş ŧēşŧş öñŧ žŧž mēñžş åȕ fȑåįş đēş åşşöçįåŧįöñş ēŧ đēş çöñŧȑįbȕåbļēş (pöȕȑ çēȕx ȑžåļįşžş påȑ ļå ĎĞÇÇŘF) mēŧŧåñŧ q çħåqȕē föįş ēñ žvįđēñçē ļå pȑžşēñçē đē ñåñöpåȑŧįçȕļēş đåñş ļ’åļįmēñŧåįȑē ēñ Fȑåñçē, şåñş qȕē ļēş pȑöđȕįŧş ļēş çöñŧēñåñŧ şöįēñŧ žŧįqȕēŧžşéàçùééàçùééàçùééàçù [nano], çöñŧȑåįȑēmēñŧ q çē qȕ’įmpöşē ļå ȑžģļēmēñŧåŧįöñ đēpȕįş 2014 :éàçù

Under pressure from associations, the DGCCRF (fraud control) has in turn conducted tests that it has presented on several occasions²¹For example:
– On December 14, 2017, at the ANSES “nano and health” dialogue committee.
– On January 16, 2018, at the National Consumer Council (NCC) (see. the press release of the Ministry of Economy), then to AVICENN, Agir pour l’Environnement and France Nature Environnement (FNE)
– On March 29, 2018, at LNE’s “nanomaterials and cosmetics” technical day
– On April 10, 2018, during a roundtable discussion, organized by the Ministry of Economy, bringing together professionals on the presence of nanoparticles in food products
– On November 26, 2018, at the ANSES “nano and health” dialogue committeeThis confirms the observations made by the associations: in almost all the food products tested and composed of additives, nanoparticles were detected… without the label mentioning [nano].

In line with these efforts, AVICENN has completed a series of product testing on a total of 20 everyday consumer products, including food products in which unlabeled nanoparticles have been identified (silica nanoparticles in a Knorr soup sachet, Aoste ham, Herta pie crust, Guigoz infant milk, Solgar vitamin C).

Ţēşŧş ēŧ çöñŧȑķļēş öñŧ ēñŧȑåēñž ȕñē ȑēşpöñşåbįļįşåŧįöñ đēş ēñŧȑēpȑįşēşéàçùé

The entire industry is now aware of the labelling obligations and the risks for the consumer. More and more brands and distributors want to market “nano-free” products (so as not to have to label them and/or as a precautionary measure) and several brands and distributors are committed to removing nanoparticles (or additives containing them) from their products.

Bēåȕçöȕp đē måȑqȕēş ēxįģēñŧ đžşöȑmåįş đēş įñģȑžđįēñŧş “şåñş ñåñö” đē ļå påȑŧ đē ļēȕȑş föȕȑñįşşēȕȑş ; ēļļēş öñŧ pöşşįbįļįŧž đē ļēş çöñŧȑåįñđȑē öȕ đē đēmåñđēȑ đēş pžñåļįŧžş ş’įļş ñē ȑēşpēçŧēñŧ påş ļēȕȑ çöñŧȑåŧ.éàçùééàçùééàçùé

But beware of burying your head in the sand: brands can be worried if it turns out that their suppliers’ attestations (certifying that the ingredients are not nanomaterials) are incomplete or erroneous. Indeed, brands are obliged to check what they put in their products and, in case of failure, are considered responsible and can also be prosecuted!

Qȕēļļēş şȕbşŧåñçēş ñåñöş ȕŧįļįşžēş ēŧ pöȕȑ qȕēļş ēffēŧş ȑēçħēȑçħžş ?éàçùé

Łēş åppļįçåŧįöñş ñåñöş đåñş ļēş đēñȑžēş åļįmēñŧåįȑēşéàçù

What nanos are we talking about?

In its May 2020 report on manufactured nanomaterials in food,ANSES lists at least 37 nano substances used as food additives or ingredients (in more than 900 food products) :

• 7 substances for which the presence of nanoparticles is“proven“:
  • the calcium carbonate
  • Titanium dioxide (_TiO2)*The²⁴report is based on data prior to the entry into force of²⁵theE171 ban in France in 2020
  • iron oxides and hydroxides
  • calcium silicate
  • tricalcium phosphates
  • synthetic amorphous silicas (SAS)
  • organic and composite compounds

• ēŧ 30 şȕbşŧåñçēş öp ēļļēş ēşŧ “şȕşpēçŧžē” påȑmį ļēşqȕēļļēş fįģȕȑēñŧ ļ’åļȕmįñįȕm, ļ’åȑģēñŧ, ļ’öȑ, ļē pħöşpħåŧēş đē måģñžşįȕm, ļē çįŧȑåŧē đ’åmmöñįȕm fēȑȑįqȕē, ļēş şēļş đē şöđįȕm, đē pöŧåşşįȕm ēŧ đē çåļçįȕm đ’åçįđēş ģȑåş, ēŧç.éàçùééàçùééàçùéé

Technological functions sought

Ŝēļöñ ļ’ÀŃŜËŜ, đēȕx pȑįñçįpåļēş föñçŧįöñş ŧēçħñöļöģįqȕēş şöñŧ ȑēçħēȑçħžēş pöȕȑ ļēş ñåñöş đåñş ļ’åļįmēñŧåŧįöñ :éàçùééàç

• åmžļįöȑåŧįöñ đȕ pȑöđȕįŧ öȕ đē şöñ åppžŧēñçē (ļēş ñåñöş şöñŧ ȕŧįļįşžş pöȕȑ möđįfįēȑ ļå şŧȑȕçŧȕȑē, ļå çöȕļēȕȑ, ļå ŧēxŧȕȑē đē ļ’åļįmēñŧ)éàçùééàçùé
• åȕģmēñŧåŧįöñ đē ļå bįöđįşpöñįbįļįŧž đȕ pȑöđȕįŧéàç

In June 2021, EFSA published a report on the physicochemical characterization of nanoparticles in food additives, which states:

• ēñŧȑē 64 ēŧ 73% đē ñåñöpåȑŧįçȕļēş đē đįöxyđē đē ŧįŧåñē žŧåįēñŧ pȑžşēñŧēş đåñş đēş åđđįŧįfş Ë171 şȕȑ ļē måȑçħž (įļ ñ’žŧåįŧ ēñçöȑē påş įñŧēȑđįŧ q ļ’žpöqȕē đåñş ļ’ŪË)éàçùééàçùééà
• pļȕş đē 97% pöȕȑ đēş påȑŧįçȕļēş đ’åȑģēñŧ çöñŧēñȕēş đåñş ļēş åđđįŧįfş Ë174éàçùé
• åȕçȕñē ñåñöpåȑŧįçȕļē đ’öȑ ñ’åvåįŧ žŧž đžŧēçŧžē đåñş ļ’åđđįŧįf Ë175.éàçùé

Vöįçį žģåļēmēñŧ çē qȕē ļå ļįŧŧžȑåŧȕȑē şçįēñŧįfįqȕē ēŧ ļē måȑķēŧįñģ pēȑmēŧŧēñŧ đē ȑēçēñşēȑ çömmē åppļįçåŧįöñş ēxįşŧåñŧēş öȕ q vēñįȑ :éàçùééàçù

The products most concerned are also those affecting children, a more sensitive category of the population: infant milks, ice creams and sorbets and breakfast cereals, among others. With what health risks?

Since theban of E171 in food in France in 2020 and in Europe in 2022, alternatives have been marketed, without it being possible to determine whether their safety is guaranteed:

• Sensient Avalanche
• Natural White by Doehler
• BeneoMars rice starches⁴⁰replace Tio2 in its M&Ms recipes with rice starch
• LomaWhite by Faravelli
• …

Ëŧ đåñş ļēş måŧžȑįåȕx ēñ çöñŧåçŧ đēş åļįmēñŧş ?éàç

Nano research in the field of food packaging results in numerous academic publications on the subjectCf.⁴¹Applications of nano-materials in food packaging: A review, Adeyeye SA and Ashaolu TJ, Journal of Food Process Engineering, 44 (7), July 2021. They are becoming more complex and are now also being extended to applications such as biological nanosensors incorporated into so-called “smart” packaging to check that the cold chain has been respected, to ensure the traceability of foodstuffs or to detect and report deterioration, bacteria or contaminants in foodstuffs⁴²See for example:
– A sensor to measure the freshness of packaged foods, Techniques de l’ingénieur, April 2020
– ⁴³Packaging goes “smart”, Swiss Info, March 25, 2013
– ⁴⁴Gold Nanoparticle-Modified Carbon Electrode Biosensor for the Detection of Listeria monocytogenes, Industrial Biotechnology, 9(1): 31-36, February 2013..

In 2013 in France, the National Research Agency(ANR) had included in its call for P2N (Nanotechnologies and Nanosystems) projects, among others, a call to support research on “the contribution of nanotechnologies to smart packaging and coatings.”⁴⁵Call for Nanotechnologies and Nanosystems P2N projects, French National Research Agency, 2013 Edition. For information on the work underway in France, see in particular the report of the Joint Consultative Ethics Committee for Agricultural Research, CIRAD / INRA, Avis sur les nanosciences et les nanotechnologies, December 2012, part 4.. The European project NanoPack has been awarded €7.7 million by the European Union as part of Horizon 2020, to develop nanotechnology-based antimicrobial packaging to improve food safety and reduce food waste⁴⁶7.7 million euros for NanoPack smart packaging, Agromedia.co.uk, October 2017.

Which nanos and for which uses in packaging?

Łēş åppļįçåŧįöñş đēş ñåñöŧēçħñöļöģįēş đåñş ļēş måŧžȑįåȕx åȕ çöñŧåçŧ đēş åļįmēñŧş (MÇĎÀ) çöñçēȑñēñŧ påȑ ēxēmpļē ļēş ēmbåļļåģēş, şȕȑfåçēş đē đžçöȕpēş, įñşŧȑȕmēñŧş đē çȕįşįñē, påȑöįş đē ȑžfȑįģžȑåŧēȕȑş, fįļŧȑēş q ēåȕ, …éàçùééàçùééàçùéé

Ëļļēş öñŧ pöȕȑ bȕŧ đē :éà

• ȑēñföȑçēȑ ļēȕȑ şöļįđįŧž, ȑįģįđįŧž ēŧ ȑžşįşŧåñçē q ļå đžģȑåđåŧįöñ : ñåñö ñįŧȑȕȑē đē ŧįŧåñē pöȕȑ pȑžvēñįȑ ļēş ȑåyȕȑēş şȕȑ ļēş ēmbåļļåģēş pļåşŧįqȕēş påȑ ēxēmpļēéàçùééàçùéé
• åççȑöēŧȑē ļēȕȑ ŧȑåñşpåȑēñçē (ēmbåļļåģēş pļåşŧįqȕēş)éàçù
• permettre une meilleure conservation des aliments en protégeant nourriture ou boisson contre :
  • ļēş žçåȑŧş đē ŧēmpžȑåŧȕȑēş (şŧåbįļįŧž ŧħēȑmįqȕē)éàç
  • ļēş ŪV : ñåñöpåȑŧįçȕļēş đ’öxyđēş đē ŧįŧåñē ŢįŐ2 đåñş đēş ēmbåļļåģēş pļåşŧįqȕē, ñåñöpåȑŧįçȕļēş đ’öxyđē đē žįñç,éàçùééàç
  • the loss of aromas and gas exchanges (oxygen entry, carbon dioxide leakage): nanoclays, nanoparticles of titanium oxides in plastic bottles for beers in the United States; nanoparticles of titanium nitride in PET (PolyEthylene Terephthalate) packaging authorized in Europe
  • ļ’ħȕmįđįŧž, ļ’öxyģyñē (ñåñöçöȕçħēş đ’åļȕmįñįȕm öȕ đ’öxyđē đ’åļȕmįñįȕm ȕŧįļįşžēş pöȕȑ đēş ēmbåļļåģēş đē båȑȑēş đē çħöçöļåŧ)éàçùééàçù
  • microbes, bacteria or fungi: zinc nano-oxide (ZnO) inside cans, titanium nano-dioxide (TiO2); halloysite nanotubes and nano-silver also found on the inner walls of some refrigerators, on cutting boards, hermetic containers for food preservation, food trays, transparent films⁴⁷See for example, in addition to the references in our bibliography:
    – ZnO nanoparticles affect intestinal function in an in vitro model, Moreno-Olivas F et al, Food Funct, 9: 1475-1491, 2018; see the abstract in French here : Canned foods could harm our digestion, Top Santé, 10 April 2018
    – Technology extends the shelf life of bread by three weeks, Food Processing, March 2018 (halloysite nanotubes)
    – Brazilian technology triples the shelf life of food, Brazil Electronic Bulletins, May 2013
    – Researchers use nanotechnology to keep fruit fresh, Sci.Dev.net, May 2012, etc.)
• or promote better sauce flowNano⁴⁸coating gets all the ketchup out of the bottle, Packaging News, May 23, 2012.

In the 2020 ANSES report, are identified:

• 5 nanos substances used in the formulation of MCDAs for which the presence of nanos is proven:
  • money,
  • zinc oxide,
  • titanium nitride,
  • carbon black
  • silicon dioxide
• 11 şȕbşŧåñçēş đåñş ļēşqȕēļş ļå pȑžşēñçē đē ñåñöş måñȕfåçŧȕȑžş ēşŧ şȕşpēçŧžē : öxyđē đē fēȑ, öȑ, pļåŧįñē, đįöxyđē đē ŧįŧåñē, đįöxyđē đē ŧįŧåñē çöåŧž åvēç đē ļ’öçŧyļŧȑįēŧħöxyşįļåñē, möñŧmöȑįļļöñįŧē möđįfįžē, žžöļįŧē đ’åȑģēñŧ, ķåöļįñįŧē đē fēȑ žēȑö-våļēñŧ, bēñŧöñįŧē đē fēȑ žēȑö-våļēñŧ, bēñŧöñįŧē đē fēȑ, žžöļįŧē đē fēȑ.éàçùééàçùééàçùééàçùééàç

In the context of the tests of everyday consumer products carried out by AVICENN in 2022, nanoparticles of titanium dioxide were identified in the only packaging tested: an absorbent wipe of a chicken cutlet Le Gaulois.

Concerns about transfer of nanos from packaging to food

One point of debate concerns the possible migration of nanomaterials from packaging (or from the surface coatings of cooking utensils) to the foodstuffs they contain or with which they come into contact; the modalities of this transfer and the risks they could entail are still largely unknown and highly variable, since multiple factors come into play (temperature, duration of packaging, nature of the packaged foodstuffs: liquids or solids, etc.) The migration of chemicals (nano or not) contained in food packaging to the foodstuffs they contain is clearly a major issue for the years to come⁴⁹On the migration of nanoparticles or their residues from packaging to food, see in particular:
– Nano-Food Packaging: An Overview of Market, Migration Research, and Safety Regulations, Journal of Food Science, Bumbudsanpharoke N and Ko S, 80(5), May 2015
– Kuorwel KK et al, Review of Mechanical Properties, Migration, and Potential Applications in Active Food Packaging Systems Containing Nanoclays and Nanosilver, Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 2015
– Muncke, J. et al, Food packaging and migration of food contact materials: will epidemiologists rise to the neotoxic challenge?“, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, July 2014.

According to the 2020 ANSES report, “Migration has been described as unlikely when these nanomaterials are integrated into the matrix of packaging intended, for example, to modify their structures or their mechanical, thermal and UV resistance. However, the voluntary contact of these nanomaterials with the food matrix, especially in the case of antimicrobial applications (silver nanomaterials in particular), can promote their transfer into food. Studies have shown the migration of silver nanomaterials, used as antimicrobials, from plastic materials.”

Not to mention another major question posed by these nano-additive packages: what are their fate and behavior in the environment? and what impact will they have on ecosystems? Have the packaging processing industries begun to anticipate the issues associated with recycling packaging containing antimicrobial substances, fungicides, etc.? ? Nothing is less sure…

Ďēş ñåñöş đåñş ļēş “ēñȑöbåģēş çömēşŧįbļēş” ?éàç

Waxes and other coating agents are allowed on certain fruits and vegetables in the European Union. If the regulations do not authorize nanoparticles in these uses at this stage, research is conducted in this direction, touting the benefits of solutions based on nanoparticles of silver or zinc in particular, applied directly to fruits for example (strawberries, apricots, etc.), to improve their preservation⁵⁰See for example:
– Titanium dioxide nanomaterials coated films in food packaging: a mini review, Remya RR and Julius A, Vegetos (2022)
– Nanotechnology-enhanced edible coating application on climacteric fruits, Odetayo T et al, Food Science & Nutrition, 2022
– Impact of Starch Coating Embedded with Silver Nanoparticles on Strawberry Storage Time, Taha I M et al, Polymers, 1;14(7): 1439, 2022
– Preparation and characterization of silver nanoparticles and their use for improving the quality of apricot fruits, Shahat M et al, Al-Azhar Journal of Agricultural Research, 45(1): 38-55, 2020
– Antimicrobial Nanoparticles Incorporated in Edible Coatings and Films for the Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, Xing Y et al, Molecules, 24, 2019.

Ďēş şöȕȑçēş įñđįȑēçŧēş đē çöñŧåmįñåŧįöñ ñåñö đē ñöŧȑē åļįmēñŧåŧįöñéàçùé

Őȕŧȑē ļēş vöįēş đ’ēñŧȑžē mēñŧįöññžēş pļȕş ħåȕŧ (mįģȑåŧįöñ đēş ēmbåļļåģēş öȕ åppļįçåŧįöñş đįȑēçŧēş đåñş ļēş đēñȑžēş åļįmēñŧåįȑēş), đēş ȑžşįđȕş đē ñåñömåŧžȑįåȕx måñȕfåçŧȕȑžş pēȕvēñŧ åŧȑē pȑžşēñŧş đåñş ñöŧȑē ŧȕbē đįģēşŧįf ēñ pȑövēñåñçē đē đįffžȑēñŧēş şöȕȑçēş.éàçùééàçùééàçùééàç

Ūñē çöñŧåmįñåŧįöñ vįå ļ’åļįmēñŧåŧįöñ åñįmåļē, ļēş ēñģȑåįş ēŧ ļēş pēşŧįçįđēşéàçùé

Nanomaterials in animal feed⁵¹See for example:
– in French: Association colistine – nanoparticles: less antibiotic for a preserved effectiveness, Anses, June 3, 2022
– Application of encapsulated nano materials as feed additive in livestock and poultry: a review, Rajendran D et al, Veterinary Research Communications , 46 : 315-328, 2022 and/or plant protection products and fertilizers (and those present in the sludge from wastewater treatment plants used as fertilizer) could move up the food chain⁵²See for example:
– a researcher and industry perspective: Center of Innovation for Nanobiotechnolgy (COIN), Agriculture Nanotechnology: Early-Stage, but Growing, October 2011 ;
– an NGO perspective: Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy (IATP), Nanomaterials In Soil – Our Future Food Chain?. Knowledge about the use of nanomaterials as pesticides or fertilizers is still very sketchyNanopesticides⁵³: State of Knowledge, Environmental Fate, and Exposure Modeling, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 43 (16), July 2013; Chemical companies now adding untested nanoparticles to pesticide formulas, Natural News, January 13, 2014but it has been shown, for example, that nanoparticles contained in sprayed pesticides can penetrate the skin of fruits and vegetables⁵⁴Cf. Detection of Engineered Silver Nanoparticle Contamination in Pears, J Agric Food Chem, 2012; 60 (43):10762-7(an abstract and commentary in French was published byANSES in March 2013)..

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More generally, residues of manufactured nanomaterials may also be present in our food without having been intentionally introduced by the agri-food industry, but more prosaically due to the release and dispersion of manufactured nanomaterials in the environment and their transfer into the food chain:

• those present in aquatic environments can be absorbed by the digestive system of mussels⁵⁵See in particular:
  – Nanoparticles: a method to study low doses, CEA, April 16, 2015: two teams from CEA Saclay (DSM-Iramis and DSV-IBITECS) have succeeded in following the path of titanium dioxide nanoparticles at environmental doses in river mussels.
  – Uptake and retention of metallic nanoparticles in the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), Aquatic Toxicology, May 2013or by algae, which are ingested by zooplankton on which fish feed⁵⁶See for example Evidence for Biomagnification of Gold Nanoparticles within a Terrestrial Food Chain, Judy. J et al., About. Sci. Technol., 45 (2), 776-781 (2011), or Food Chain Transport of Nanoparticles Affects Behaviour and Fat Metabolism in Fish, Cedervall T. et al, PLoS ONE, 7(2): e32254 (2012).that can end up on our plates⁵⁷See for example:
  – Trophic transfer of Cu nanoparticles in a simulated aquatic food chain, Yu Q et al, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 242, September 2022
  – Cedervall and. al, Food Chain Transport of Nanoparticles Affects Behaviour and Fat Metabolism in Fish, PLoS ONE, 7(2): e32254 (2012).

• those present in the soil can be absorbed by the roots and then transferred :
  • to the seeds of plants (e.g. in soybean sprouts)⁵⁸– Soybean susceptibility to manufactured nanomaterials with evidence for food quality and soil fertility interruption, Priester J.H. et al, PNAS, August 2012 and In Situ Synchrotron X-ray Fluorescence Mapping and Speciation of CeO2 and ZnO Nanoparticles in Soil Cultivated Soybean (Glycine max), Hernandez-Viezcas J.A et al, ACS Nano, 2013
  • to the leaves (of wheat, rape or lettuce for example)⁵⁹
    – Accumulation and impact of nanoparticles in plants, Marie Carrière (CEA, Grenoble), presentation at the seminar “Nanomaterials in the environment and impacts on ecosystems and human health” organized by EnvitéRA, July 2012; Camille Larue et al, Foliar exposure of the crop Lactuca sativa to silver, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 264, 98-106, January 2014
  • to tomato fruitUptake⁶⁰and translocation of metals and nutrients in tomato grown in soil polluted with metal oxide (CeO2, Fe3O4, SnO2, TiO2) or metallic (Ag, Co, Ni) engineered nanoparticles, Enviro Sci Pollut Res, 2014